Presidents Poverty free essay sample

Analyzes financial strategies neediness projects of Democrats Kennedy Johnson Republicans Reagan Bush. The unique social strategies and projects of the Kennedy/Johnson period and the Reagan/Bush time exhibit the various perspectives wherein these organizations saw poor people. Kennedy/Johnson policymakers viewed the poor as defective and unpracticed, needing government help to enter the standard and acclimatize societys hard working attitude. Reagan/Bush policymakers viewed the poor as casualties of government overindulgence, whose solitary trust in independence was by weaning them from the administration give. Social arrangements and projects keep on going under serious assault as officials look for intends to control the countrys spiraling government shortage. An assessment of the objectives and social speculations fundamental the arrangements and projects of the Kennedy/Johnson and Reagan/Bush organizations exhibits why the prickly issue of destitution

The Move :: Personal Narrative Moving Essays

The Move Summer of 2000, my folks concluded we should move to California. From Georgia to California, East Coast to West Coast. I don't think my mother truly needed to move. It was my Daji’s (Dad’s oldest sibling) flaw. He and his child purchased an inn in Morro Bay, California. Daji needed my father to assist him with running it(the inn). So with the end goal for that to occur, we would all need to move. My mother was not accompanying my father, sister and me, at this time. We despite everything had our home and my mother despite everything had her activity. We required the salary. We were going to head to California in our white Nissan Previa. As we went through the southern states, my mother got news from Zambia, where her family lives, saying that my granddad had a respiratory failure. So now my mother was not going to be coming to California when she was assume to. I would have been mother less for longer than I was happy to be. I cried and cried (despondently). I know my f ather felt bad(horrible about what he was doing) yet he was unable to tell his more established sibling no. Every one of those imbecilic regard rules. In our way of life, that is the Indian culture, we should regard our older folks, regardless of whether that implies doing things we would prefer not to do, but(I accept) some of the time you can say no. We drove the remainder of the best approach to California. We remained at the inn, the one my Daji purchased. It had a loft connected to it. The loft had two rooms, a kitchen, lounge room, lounge area, and a full shower. My sister and I shared one of the rooms, my cousin and his better half had the other room, my father dozed in the front room and my auntie and uncle dozed in one of the inn rooms. We detested it. Back home we had our own rooms, our own space. My sister and I were not exceptionally close as of now, so it was hard to share and discussion about what was going on. We didn't care for it(the thought of moving) generally on the grounds that we were away from our companions, our reality and above all our mother. (at the point when we got to California we must be selected school. So we went to the nearest school My father took us to the school, which was thirty minutes from where we lived, in a totally unique town.

Al-Anon Meeting Topics for Beginners

Al-Anon Meeting Topics for Beginners More in Addiction Coping and Recovery Methods and Support Overcoming Addiction Personal Stories Alcohol Use Addictive Behaviors Drug Use Nicotine Use Most Al-Anon Family Groups meetings are topic discussion meetings. This means the person who is leading the meeting, the chairperson, chooses a topic related to the experience of dealing with a friend or family member who has a problem with alcoholism. Sometimes the chairperson will ask the group if anyone has a topic they would like the group to discuss. After a topic is chosen, then those who are at the meeting can share their experience, strength, and hope regarding that specific topic. Topics for Meetings Below are some of the topics that seem to be of most interest to those who are newcomers to Al-Anon Family Groups, or who want to learn more about the program and learn how to deal with their alcoholic friends or relatives. Buddy T. shares topics discussed through 19 years of  Al-Anon Chat Meetings. Newcomers are welcome, especially at the  Al-Anon Beginners Chat  Friday nights. These topics are suitable for live meetings as well. Acceptance How have you learned to tell the difference between those things that you can change and those you cant regarding living with an alcoholic? Discuss what accepting that you are powerless over alcohol means to you. Alcoholism as a Disease Accepting alcoholism as a disease can help you understand how the alcoholic goes through cycle after cycle of swearing off alcohol but returning to his or her same habit days later. Explore that topic. Dealing With Anger You may get mixed messages about anger in your household. Are you told to control your anger but others in the family are allowed to explode violently? At Al-Anon, you learn that anger is a natural and normal emotion. Being angry is okay, its what you do with the anger that makes a difference. Changing Attitudes The Al-Anon meeting opening statement says, So much depends on our own attitudes, and as we learn to place our problem in its true perspective we find it loses its power to dominate our thoughts and our lives. What attitude is dominating your life? Dealing With Change The principles you learn in Al-Anon Family Groups can help deal with changes as they come in life - sometimes major changes. You may not be able to change the circumstances any, but you can change your attitude about the situation. Choices You have choices. You have to accept the things you cannot change. You do not have to accept unacceptable behavior. You have the right to make decisions that are in your best interestâ€"to decide not to be around alcoholic behavior and to walk away from fights and arguments. And to decide to no longer participate in the insanity of others. Have you found the courage to make those kinds of decisions? Control Issues Do you have  control issues? If you step in and try to solve problems for others you rob them of the dignity of being able to make their own mistakes and learn from them. Are you learning to let go and let God? Courage to Change Courage to change is not something that comes naturally to those who grew up in alcoholic homes. You may have found yourself being comfortable in relationships that were not only not healthy  but downright sick. In order for all that to change, you have to seek courage from an outside source. Dealing With Crises Are you able to deal with major crises but find yourself driven crazy by the small, everyday ones? Resources for Families of Alcoholics Denial Are you frustrated by the blatant denial  of an alcoholic, who wont admit that his or her behavior is causing problems, damaging and destroying others? Have you learned that it isnt your job to convince that person they are in denial, turning that over to a power greater than yourself? Detachment Learning how to detach can be difficult. When the alcoholic gets into a crisis, do you want to rush in and save the day? This can be the exact opposite of what you should do to get that person point of reaching out for help. Enabling Some of the things that you do to try to help the alcoholic are the very things that are enabling her to continue in her dysfunctional behavior. Are You Enabling an Alcoholic? Unreasonable Expectations Are your expectations not reasonable at all when you are dealing with an alcoholic? You may be setting yourself up for disappointment and frustration  until you learn to adjust  your expectations closer to reality. Emptiness Emptiness is that loneliness that comes with living with and trying to love someone who was just not there. Someone who doesnt care about anything else but alcohol. Have you tried to fill that void with less than healthy things? A Family Disease You may have come to Al-Anon thinking the alcoholic was the only one who was exhibiting insane behavior. But when you focus on yourself, you may realize that some of your behavior and thinking are also off-kilter. Thats why they call alcoholism a family disease. Fear of Abandonment Are you afraid or even terrified of being alone or abandoned? Do you go to any lengths to hold on to a relationship, no matter how unhealthy or harmful  because you are afraid of not ever being able to have another one? Focus on Ourselves One of the 12 Traditions of Al-Anon states that we have no opinion on outside issues. Someone elses drinking or behavior is an outside issue. How do you keep the focus on your spiritual journey of recovery and not on anyone elses behavior? Forgiveness It seems to be one of those spiritual truths that before you can be forgiven, you must first forgive. That seems to be the way God always does it, puts the ball in your court and waits for you to make the first move. God does not require you to feel like forgiving, only that you forgive. By doing so, by taking that first step, even just faking it until you make it even, then God is able to give  you a forgiving heart. Gratitude Do you find yourself feeling sorry for yourself? A suggestion is to  sit down and write out a gratitude list. It is amazing how that really works to chase away the gloom. Growing One Day at a Time Do you work on your Al-Anon program every day? Do you see how that keeps you making progress, or at least prevents the worst backward slides? Honesty Do you have difficulty with the honesty part of the program? After years of covering up and keeping secrets, it can be hard to be open and honest. Keep It Simple It may sound like a trite saying, but there is a lot of wisdom in the suggestion to keep it simple. Let Go and Let God Are you practicing the principle of letting go and letting God in relation to living with an alcoholic, but also in dealing with many other things? Live and Let Live Learning it is okay to live your life without it revolving around an alcoholic can be new territory. How can you learn to live and let live? Looking After You When you start looking after yourself first and addressing your problems, you arent contributing as much to the chaos and confusion. The alcoholic can stop reacting to your efforts to control them. You wont be stopping them from drinking, but your situation and attitude will be changed. Mind Your Own Business At Al-Anon, somebody elses drinking is none of your business,  You are  not responsible for someone elses choices. The shame and the embarrassment caused by their behavior doesnt belong to you, it belongs to them. If they decide to make choices that are bad for them, it is not a reflection on how good a parent, or friend, or spouse, or sponsor you are. They have the right to make their own mistakes and, hopefully, learn from them. You can only do my part right, share your experience, strength, and hope when its appropriate to do so. One Day at a Time The slogan one day at a time sounds like another one of those trite sayings that are overused, but there really is a lot of wisdom in reminding yourself to not live in the past or project the future, but deal with the here and now. Powerless You may have come to Al-Anon never once thinking you were powerless, that there was something you could do to cause the alcoholic to wake up and finally admit there was a problem. Step 1 is admitting you are powerless over alcohol. Dealing With Rejection Do you have difficulty handling rejection in any form? Do you have to find a way to fix any disagreement? Restoration to Sanity Step 2 says we came to believe a power greater than ourselves could restore us to sanity. Have you accepted that you are insane and need that help? Or do you still maintain that only the alcoholic is the crazy one? Self Esteem Do you have problems with self-confidence or feeling that you really belong? Serenity You can become addicted to excitement when you live with an alcoholic. Crises, problems, grief, abuse, chaos, anything but boredom. How can you accept the  gift of serenity? Trust Trust is a problem when you first come into Al-Anon. All the lies, the betrayals, and the secrets can leave your heart broken and hardened. Have you begun to learn to trust yourself and others? Understanding and Encouragement Part of Al-Anons primary purpose is to offer understanding and encouragement to the alcoholic. Unreasonable Without Knowing It It says in the Al-Anon meeting opening statement, Our thinking becomes distorted by trying to force solutions, and we become irritable and unreasonable without knowing it. Can you really become unreasonable and not even know it? Dealing With Verbal Abuse It difficult it is to detach when the disease is in your face screaming! When the alcoholic is accusing, cursing, raging, dominating, manipulating, or controlling, it makes detachment with love seem almost impossible. How have you learned to detach during these episodes? How the Alcoholic Mindset Affects Families

Essay about The Loss of Ethics and Trust in Corporations...

Something that is widely down spread due to some of the current allegations within corporations is ethics and trust. Many individuals including myself look at shows such as Cops and Cheaters as drama and action but it is merely nothing more than ethics and trust right in front of our eyes. The effects of our daily lives not only affect us but so many others. I remember during high school that Enron, a huge corporation at the time, wasn’t doing so well and yet they had â€Å"cooked the books†. That means that basically that they were forging and falsify their records to perceive as if they were being successful. It is easy now to look back on it and say the company did it to seem attractive for potential investors. We know the outcome of their†¦show more content†¦The internal controls were correctly monitored within the previous ninety days and have been reported on their findings. We must have a list of all deficiencies in the internal controls and informati on on any fraud that involves employees who are involved within the internal activities. The report must also include any major noteworthy changes in internal controls that could have a negative impact on the internal controls. (Barth, 2012) Section 401 includes disclosers in the periodic reports. Financial statements which are published by issuers are required to be accurate and presented in a manner that does not falsify or not disclose any significant state material. These financial statements shall also include all out of balance obligations or transactions. The Commission was required to study and report on the extent of off-balance transactions resulting transparent reporting. The Commission is also required to determine whether generally accepted accounting principles or other regulations result in open and meaningful reporting by issuers. (Barth, 2012) Section 404 is what many refer to as the most complicated, most contested, and most expensive to implementation of all the Sarbanes Oxley Act sections. â€Å"All annual financial reports must include an Internal Control Report stating that management is responsible for an adequateShow MoreRelatedThe Rise of Enron Essay examples1632 Words   |  7 Pageswas considered to be one of the most notorious and compelling business ethics cases in modern generations. It’s was a textbook version of what can go wrong in an organization that lacks a true culture of ethical standards. Investors and the media once considered Enron to be the company of the future, but as its demise suggests, it was in reality not a particularly modern business organization, especially in its approach to ethics. The corporate actions that led to Enrons demise were not only theRead MoreEthics and Information Security Essay1125 Words   |  5 PagesEthics and Online Source Information What is Ethics? In my opinion, ethics give people free will to make right choices. People have free will to make choices that are governed with responsibility, accountability, and liability. We have a responsibility to perform in an ethical manner and be accountable for our choices or actions. Regardless of the circumstances and choices we make, there are consequences if we make the wrong choice. The question of whether an action or choice is ethical or notRead MoreThe Ethics Of An Ethical Officer1074 Words   |  5 Pagessubject of business ethics, as well as its importance to businesses and organizations. However despite this, there has not been much written on exactly how businesses should be ensuring ethical practices are being implemented. One proposal to help businesses manage the ethical problems and issues that arise with large business was the creation of a role to handle ethical issues and problems that may occur within the organization. That role became what is now known as an ethics of ficer. The job ofRead MoreWhat Is Ethical Leadership?948 Words   |  4 Pagesleadership? Before answering the question, let s look at the definition of ethics and leadership. According to the Oxford dictionary ethics is defined as moral principles that govern a persons or groups behavior. Moreover, the Oxford Dictionary defines the word leadership as follow â€Å"the action of leading a group of individuals or an organization. Ethical and moral leadership are related to concepts such as trust, honesty, consideration and more. Daniel Palmer notes that good leadershipRead MoreThe Sarbanes Oxley Act Of 20021530 Words   |  7 Pagesmoney they invested into the company. This chart shows that the share price dropped from $84 per share to $0.01 per share in about ten months. It seems like not a big deal, but in reality people usually buy hundreds of shares in a company, so that loss of $84 can calculate to about $25,200 if a person has 300 shares lost. This chart shows how quickly the money was lost and how badly it affected the people who owned shares of Enron. After the Enron scandal the government had created a new law calledRead MoreMarketing And Distribution Strategies Of Wyndham Worldwide1627 Words   |  7 PagesSITUATIONS Wyndham Worldwide Corporation (WYN) is a hospitality products and service provider company headquartered in Parsippany, New Jersey . Operating globally, the company offers business customers and individual consumers a wide array of hospitality services and products as well as accommodation alternatives through its premier portfolio of globally renowned brands (McKenzie, 2015). Trammel Crow founded the company in 1981 under the name Wyndham Hotel Corporation. Since its foundation, the companyRead MoreChild Labor Ethical Dilema1357 Words   |  6 PagesBombay, and other far-flung regions throughout the world. As the world becomes smaller and the global marketplace increases, companies have been establishing plants in nations in which the labor costs are cheap. While many deride this practice as a loss of jobs in the home market of the company, others argue that consumers are demanding less expensive goods. This demand for less expensive, same-quality goods, is resulting in new plan ts in third-world nations, or outsourcing to companies who can provideRead MoreThe Role Of Research, Technology Transfer, And Non-Core Education928 Words   |  4 Pagessecond-class, low-paid instructors, and the funds have been diverted to other programs. Conflicts of interest can arise in continuing-education courses, for example, those offered by medical schools where nearly one-third of the expenses are paid by corporations who want their brands prominently featured. Although med schools deny it, such corporate money brings pressure to present certain findings and not others or to concentrate on certain treatments (for example, ones requiring drugs) to the exclusionRead MoreEssay on The Consequences of Bad Business Decisions1304 Words   |  6 Pagespursue capitalism to its fullest potential. In doing so, business leaders have lost their values and ethics, and make bad business decisions. The downfalls of a company are the consequence of C.E.O.s bad decisions. According to Marjaana Kopperi business ethics, can simply be defined in terms of social and ecological responsibility of business. According to this definition, business ethics requires that business decisions should not be made exclusively from the narrow, economical perspectiveRead MoreWe Must Not Allow Wealthy Donors to Control U.S. Politics Essay1513 Words   |  7 Pagesresponsibility and ethics in Washington or CREW, a non-profit legal watchdog group dedicated in holding public officials accountable for their actions, about seventeen members of the past congress member were listed for most corrupt. The political scandals we hear about are usually swept under the rug but affect large numbers of the populations through insane budget cuts and constrains. Middle and lower socials class are the ones who take the hits in economical inflations and loss of employment. Such

The Origin and Development of Basketball Essay - 524 Words

The Origin and Development of Basketball The game of basketball was created by a gentlemen name of Dr. James Naimsmith on 1861. He was born on Ontario, Canada. He brings the game up when he was working as a teacher on the Young Men Christian Association Training School. Naimsmith created the game to keep the kids in good condition, and wanted to find an activity that could be played indoors on the winter months. Basketball is a popular sport, between two teams. Each of them has 5 players and competes against each other for the highest scores. The game involved elements of football, soccer, and hockey the first game was actually played with a soccer ball. The goals were made of wooden peach baskets placed on the wall. Teams consisted of†¦show more content†¦In 1939 this gap was increased from 2 feet to the present 4 feet to allow for more movement underneath the basket. The first game of basketball were played with soccer balls. However, they proved to be unsuitable for dribbling and ball handling. The first manufac tured basketballs were produced in 1894 by a bicycle manufacturing company. In the late 1890s Spalding took over as the official ball maker. In 1905 the choice of basketballs was left up to the teams. Because of their inability to maintain their shape and their laces, these early brown leather basketballs were hard to dribble. In 1929 basketballs were re-designed for more bounce and with concealed laces which eliminated erratic bounces. The balls were bigger, lighter and easier to handle. In 1942 molded basketballs that maintained a constant shape and size replaced the stitched balls. In 1967 the American Basketball Association (ABA) played with a red, white and blue basketball. Today, the WNBA and FIBA use contrasting panels. The mens ball is 30 in circumference and the smaller womens ball is 29 in circumference. As you can see the game of Basketball has changed a lot. Now you can see all those changes on the different teams in all leagues around the world. I considered it that Ba sketball has evolved compare with the past. You can see the different on uniforms, courts, balls, shoes, etc†¦ During the last years the game of Basketball has became very popular, has been used on schoolShow MoreRelatedEssay about The Origin of the Game of Basketball1391 Words   |  6 Pagesor professional basketball game, although, few actually know where or how this widely popular sport was created. 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TodayRead MoreCurrent Issue Of Sport : Globalization1307 Words   |  6 Pagessuccess or not. For instance, by the effect of the saturated North American market, National Basketball Association (NBA) begun to expand its new market to Asia. This broad strategy assisted NBA making a brilliant achievement in popularizing its product in China: â€Å"For China, the NBA spent two decades building courts, teaching youth the game, and hosting promotions. Now over 300 million people in China play basketball. The league notes that 89% of Chinese aged 15 to 54 are aware of the NBA brand and NBARead MoreEssay about The Origin Of Basketball And I1572 Words   |  7 Pages Over the years since basketball was invented, its popularity has gotten very big. The game is played all over the world and has made a lot of people rich through its many professional leagues. The National Basketball Association is, by far, the most popular league in the world, but a lot of people like to watch college, high school, and recreational basketball as much. The game of basketball is one of the most popular and exciting games to watch or play on any skill level. nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;InRead MoreImportant Sports in the Society of The United States Essay1142 Words   |  5 Pages Sports are important in the society of the United States. Sports promote and motivate the development of physical fitness and sports participation for all Americans of all ages. The four major sports are most popular in the United States ; American football, Basketball, Baseball, and Ice Hockey. They are all enjoyed by not only americans, but also people in all around the world. Especially sports are associated with education in the United States. Most high schools and universities organizedRead MoreHiv And Aids : Aids1606 Words   |  7 Pagesprimates. These will be discussed on the next slide. Since HIV is a lentivirus and symptoms do not appear right away a person will look fine on the outside with possible â€Å"flu-like† symptoms, but what is really happening is in one’s immune system (Origin of HIV AIDS, 2014). FIRST OUTBREAK As I mentioned on the previous slide, HIV has two strands HIV 1 and HIV 2. These strands differentiate between two different types of primates who are thought to have caused the initial spread of this diseaseRead MoreBritish American Influence on Australia1015 Words   |  5 Pagesand Family Ties rated highly, along with crime dramas like Magnum P.I. and Miami Vice. Entertainment plays a significant role in forming the culture, beliefs and values of a nation. A strong entertainment industry, therefore, is important to the development of a strong national identity. American words heard on movies, TV etc have buried themselves deep within the Australian language e.g. bro, dude chill out, cool By 1980, there were 105 McDonalds stores throughout the Australia. These outletsRead MoreMental Illness And Its Effects On Your Mood, Thinking, And Behavior1432 Words   |  6 Pagesstarted shooing him away as if he was some sort of pest. I felt horrible for him and the way he was treated but I couldn’t do anything about it also being a young boy watching from the window.  Sociology the science or study of the origin, development, organization, and functioning of human society; the science of the fundamental laws of social relations, institutions, etc.  Discrimination Discrimination is defined as the unfair treatment of different categories of people, especially onRead MoreMarketing Mix of Ea Sports990 Words   |  4 Pagesor basketball games based on both NBA Live and Madden NFL. The earlier titles released until 1996 are referred by fans as the classic series. There are several other series, including F1 Championship (discontinued after Sony acquired the exclusive license for the Formula 1 championship), Super bike and others with a limited distribution such as AFL PRODUCT LINE amp; PRODUCT MIX IS DETAILED BELOW:- Place : – Original HQ in San Mateo, California moved to Redwood City in 1998 Origin SystemsRead MoreGender Differences Between Women And Men Speak981 Words   |  4 Pagesâ€Å"Sex Differences† is an essay written by a professor of linguistics named Ronald Macaulay. In the essay, he pointed out that there were no gender differences regarding to language development. He talked about various stereotypes about how men and women speak. He also explains in depth about how social environment made an impact on the talking between men and women. He also concluded that those linguists who still believe in that theory only continue to do so even if what they found in their research

Love and Relationships Updates Free Essays

Communication is the key to maintaining a healthy relationship. Taking serves to nurture your relationship and prevents problems or issues from festering. † Working things out is part of every relationship and everyone will do it differently. We will write a custom essay sample on Love and Relationships Updates or any similar topic only for you Order Now Many would have never been that serious when it comes to knowing more about how relationships work and how will it ever go well. Here’s how to deal with conflicts and how to manage your relationships. Learn to manage your time. If you really love the person you are in a relationship with, you should never forget that time is very much important when it comes to relationships. Remember that some people feel important when they are given time. To spend time on something thoroughly and effectively, takes time. And while this sounds redundant, it is a fundamental truth: to take time, takes time. Therefore, knowing how to use time effectively is essential. Use healthy communication to resolve conflicts. Try to see things from each other’s point of view. Negotiate in times of disagreements; understand that you cannot win at all times. Listen without judging. Stick to issues and do not attack the person, his beliefs or even his culture. Accept each other’s uniqueness. Realize that your differences enrich your relationship. Don’t sweat the small stuffs out. â€Å"Accept my supposed quirkiness as a woman and I’ll be accepting yours as a man. † as others would usually put in. From the start, build a foundation based on respect and apprec- iation of each other’s characteristics. Explore each other’s differences and interests and build them to make your relationship as a couple stronger. Don’t drag about the past. You see, PAST is PAST. You should never go back to it anymore because it is done. All you have to do is just to learn from it and prevent your mistakes and continue doing what is simply right. Take time to reflect on your own history as a third party looking in without judgment: simply observe. Understand that you are not your past. Understand that the situations and patterns and people in your life created your experiences, they didn’t create you. Knowing and understanding your past and some of your patterns will help you to recognize why you hold on and repeat self-destructive behaviors. Understanding creates awareness; awareness helps you break the cycle. Build your trust. Trust is the treasure of our daily lives. However, we do not understand its value. It is generally seen that trust in our daily lives is disappearing fast. Why have we become so suspicious that we can never enter into meaningful relationships with each other? Why can we not behave as normal human beings? After all when we were born as human beings the first lesson we learnt was that we should trust each other. However, as our lives progressed slowly, trust began to diminish. Our childhood innocence gave way to calculations in which there was no place for trust. Trust in each other gives strength and vitality to our relationships. It gives us inner happiness, which is priceless. It brings joy all around and life appears brighter and brighter . Its fragrance spreads far and wide. When you trust each other you feel self-confident. Trusting each other gives us a sense of deep bonding. It signifies that we are united to fight the battles ahead. It is indeed the communication in which relationships rely into. Without proper understanding and communication, a relationship can either deteriorate or be simply gone in a blink. The reason why most relationships couldn’t gone farther and longer is because they cannot talk about their problems, and egoistic people always are egoistic. Nobody wants to go under the other. Love is never about one but is about two or more hearts bind together as ONE. Love thinks less of oneself and it always gives and protects the other. Whenever we think that we are going wrong in love, we should never forget of the definition or should we say real definition of love in the Bible, it’s I Corinthians 13. How to cite Love and Relationships Updates, Papers

Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria an Example of the Topic History Essays by

Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria: Their Similarities and Differences Queen Elizabeth has become a legend of monarchy in her own lifetime. She is referred to as the Golden Age of England because it was considered to many as a time of great achievement and prosperity. She is famed by her abilities and achievements as she became a model to her very own people (Robin Chew, 2008). Need essay sample on "Queen Elizabeth and Queen Victoria: Their Similarities and Differences" topic? We will write a custom essay sample specifically for you Proceed Our Customers Often Tell EssayLab writers: Who wants to write assignment for me? Professional writers recommend: Here Is Your Life Vest! Essay Writing Helper Write My Essay Online Essay Paper Writing Service Best Essay Writing Service Elizabeth's life was troubled because she is an unwanted daughter of King Henry VIII. Her father wanted to have a son with his second missus which is Anne Boleyn but Anne failed, she gave birth to Elizabeth instead. Elizabeth was born on 7 September 1533 at Greenwich Palace. Her birth was possibly the greatest disappointment of her father's life. He had wanted a son and heir to succeed him as he already had a daughter, Mary, by his first missus, Katherine of Aragon. He had not divorced Katherine, and changed the religion of the country in the process, to have only another daughter. Elizabeth's early life was consequently troubled. Her mater failed to provide the King with a son and was executed on false charges of incest and adultery on 19 May 1536. Anne's marriage to the King was declared null and void, and Elizabeth, with her half-sister, Mary, was declared illegitimate. Her father's killing of her succeeding stepmothers traumatized Elizabeth. There was Jane Seymour, the third mate r, who died after giving birth to the King's only son, Edward. When the king died in the January of 1547, and his young son became King Edward VI, but he is still nine years old at that time so Edward Seymour, became Protector of England. Then the throne goes to Mary then to Elizabeth's succession. Queen Elizabeth I was crowned Queen on Sunday 15th January 1559. In the months that followed, the new Queen re-established the Protestant Church and restored the debased coinage. Queen Elizabeth I ruled from 1558 to 1603. She was the last of the Tudor monarchs. Elizabeth was impatient to become queen; she had, after all, both a brother and a sister before her in the queue to the throne. Yet Queen she became and to many historians she is the greatest monarch that England has ever had. When Elizabeth became Queen she was faced with several dilemmas. Firstly she was not married, and again the question of the succession rises. Would Elizabeth be the baked bean Elizabeth who persecuted the Catholics or be a peacemaker and allow people to have personal choice? There was also the problem of her sister's husband, Phillip. As King of Spain he was a fearsome foe and he had a bleedin' smashing bagsie to the throne. More worryingly he was intent on keeping England Catholic. This meant that war w as likely. Elizabeth's success as a Queen is a measure of how well she overcame each of these problems. There was war with Spain. England defeated the Spanish Armada and became a world power as a result. Explorations into the Americas and a dog's bollocks deal of legitimized piracy saw England become wealthier. The Religious persecutions ended: Elizabeth's reign saw just for executions for heresy as compared to the 280 in Mary's reign. The problem of marriage and the succession was one that was not overcome. There are many theories as to why Elizabeth chose not to marry and many names of supposed husbands to be. Elizabeth did manage to use these for political advantage however, playing the Spanish of against other major powers. She also managed to contain the catholic threat to her monarchy. Mary Stuart, queen of Ecosse and a claimant to the pommy throne, was forced to beg Elizabeth to protect her. She was later executed after being implicated in a plot to overthrow Elizabeth. At the end of her reign Queen Elizabeth ruled over an England that was stronger politically and wealthier than it had been four hundreds of years. England 's ruled the waves and was a major world force. She died at Richmond Palace on the 24th March 1603. Until Her death Elizabeth never had a husband or was married and did also have no children. (Elizabeth I Biography, 2008) Alexandrina Victoria was the only wean of the fourth son of King George III: Edward, Duke of Kent, fourth son of George III. Her mater was Victoria Maria Louisa of Saxe-Coburg, sister of King Leopold of the Belgians. Victoria became heiress apparent of the British crown. Her father died right after her birth. She became heir to the throne because of her three uncles; George IV, Frederick Duke of York, and William IV, of which they do not have a legitimate children who survived. She became Queen of Stonking, Britain. She was crowned the next year. During her reign, it was associated with Britain's great age of economic progress, industrial expansion and empire. She tested the limits of her royal powers when the government of Lord Melbourne, her Prime Minister, who had been her mentor, fell the next year. She refused to follow precedent and dismissed her ladies of the bedchamber so that the Tory government could replace em. Her refusal brought back the Whigs until 1841. She'd met her cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, when they were both seventeen. When they were twenty, he returned to England, and Victoria, in love with him, proposed marriage. They were married on February 10, 1840. Their first child, a daughter, was born in November 1840, and the Prince of Wales, Edward, in 1841. Three more sons and four more daughters followed. Victoria had traditional views on the role of the barney rubble and strife and mater, and though she was Queen and Albert was Prince Consort, he shared government responsibilities at least equally. His death in 1861 devastated her; her prolonged mourning lost her much popularity (Sachar L.,1989) Eventually coming out of seclusion, she maintained an active role in government until her death in 1901. Her reign, the longest of any British monarch, was marked by waxing and waning popularity -- and suspicions that she preferred the Germans a bit too much always diminished her popularity somewhat. By the time she had assumed the throne, the British monarchy was more figurehead and influence than it was a direct power in the government, and her long reign did little to change that. During her lifetime she published her Letters, Leaves from the Journal of our Life in the Highlands and More Leaves. The marriage of her daughters into other royal families, and the likelihood that her children bore a mutant gene for hemophilia, both affected the following generations of European history. (about.com, 2008) Monarchy has really been the dog's bollocks role in the United Kingdom. The queens, kings, prince and princes have a dog's bollocks influence to the people. Monarchy system of government in which one person reigns, usually a king or queen. The authority, or crown, in a monarchy is generally inherited. The ruler, or monarch, is often only the head of state, not the head of government. An example of this kind of government is the United Kingdom. Queen Elizabeth is one of the monarch of England as well as with Queen Victoria. These two queens have notice cultures just fancy Queen Victoria who really give a sterling importance to the morality of herself and her people while Queen Elizabeth have freedom of the British people to choose their own religion and to eradicate catholic persecution, the bring back the pride of the country. They are same y because the both of em possess noice culture. But they r different from the kind of life that they hae, because Queen Victoria hae a more peaceful and chuffed childhood even though she's been trough to a lot of circumstances. Queen Elizabeth is full of troble from the day she was born because her doesn't fancy her and she's also been through to a lot of stepmothers. In terms wars they r also different because during Queen Victoria's time they encountered a war because they wanted Transvaal to be their extension or they conducted the war 4 the sake of their own. While during the time Q ueen Elizabeth war was encountered by the people of engerland because they just want to be free. from Spain, who treat em unkindly. Economy is bleedin' important to a certain gaff because these queen hae a sterling abilities to rule so they've rise the economic condition of engerland during their times. Their legacies hae also influence the people until thes modern times. For the baked bean Elizabeth I established an pommy church that helped shape a national identity and remains in gaff today. And 4 Queen Victoria she reign marked the gradual establishment of modern constitutional monarchy. The monarchs really hae the power among the people of his kingdom, but we also hae the right to fight 4 our rights. References Robin Chew.(1995). Elizabeth I the Queen of England. Retrieved March 13, 2008 from http://www.lucidcafe.com/library/95sep/elizabeth.html Sachar.A.L(1989) Victoria, Queen In the New Book of Knowledge(Vol.19,pp.332) Wikipedia. (2008). Boer War. Retrieved March 13, 2008 Retrieved fromhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boer_War Wikipedia(2007).Victoria of United Kingdom. Retrieved March 13, 2008 from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria_of_the_United_Kingdom (2005).American British Translator. (2007).Elizabeth Queen of England. (2008). Elizabeth Boigraphy.

Why, in Tocquevilles view, wa essays

Why, in Tocquevilles view, wa essays The French Revolution sought to destroy entirely the institutions of the ancien rgime. Whilst its success in doing so is debatable, there is little doubt that this was the aim of the revolutionaries. The reasons for this goal are numerous, but certainly their ambition for destruction is linked in some way to the state of feudalism immediately before the Revolution, for the nobility continued to enjoy the trappings of feudalism, without experiencing the responsibilities. The improving conditions in France for the bourgeoisie and the peasantry also played a part in the violently destructive nature of the Revolution, because they became more aware of the injustices of the system. The state also had a role to play, in teaching the masses just how corrupt the regime was. In the old regime, la fodalit tait demeure la plus grande de toutes nos institutions civiles en cessant dà ªtre une institution politique. The prerogatives of the lord remained and the peasant still felt the burden of feudal dues thus feudalism remained a civil institution. However, the power and authority of the lord over the peasant was curbed considerably by the growth of administrative centralisation, for a central authority seriously restricted the lords jurisdictional powers. Furthermore, the French peasant was now a landowner, with a fierce passion for his potential to expand and for his independence. He saw only oppression, but as the lord abandoned his traditional protectoral role, he received no benefits from it. Feudal dues represented a former degradation, and the legitimacy of the lords power was no longer believed in. Therefore, feudalism did not remain a political institution. Quand la noblesse possde non seulement des privileges, mais des pouvoirs, quand elle gouve rne et administer, ses droits particuliers peuvent à ªtre tout la fois plus grands et moins aper...

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Inspirational Quotes About Teacher Do you remember a teacher who inspired you? Do you want to thank that teacher for her or his selfless service? Here is your chance. Pick an inspirational quote for your teacher from this page and send it as a special message for your teacher. Each inspirational quote lauds the efforts of good teachers. Martin HeideggerTeaching is more difficult than learning because what teaching calls for is this: to let learn. The real teacher, in fact, lets nothing else be learned than learning. His conduct, therefore, often produces the impression that we properly learn nothing from him, if by learning we now suddenly understand merely the procurement of useful information.AnonymousIf you can read this, thank a teacher.Albert EinsteinIt is the supreme art of the teacher to awaken joy in creative expression and knowledge.John GarrettThe job of a teacher is to excite in the young a boundless sense of curiosity about life, so that the growing child shall come to apprehend it with an excitement tempered by awe and wonder.Edmond H. FischerIt is commonly said that a teacher fails if he has not been surpassed by his students.David E. PriceThe impending teacher shortage is the most critical education issue we will face in the next decade.Malcolm S. ForbesEducations purpose is to replace an empty mind w ith an open one. Morihei UeshibaStudy how water flows in a valley stream, smoothly and freely between the rocks. Also learn from holy books and wise people. Everything even mountains, rivers, plants and trees should be your teacher.Richard BachLearning is finding out what we already know. Doing is demonstrating that you know it. Teaching is reminding others that they know just as well as you. You are all learners, doers and teachers.Thomas H. HuxleySit down before fact as a little child, be prepared to give up every preconceived notion, follow humbly wherever or whatever abysses nature leads, or you will learn nothing.

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Reasearch - Research Paper Example Another controversial issue that was facing Hemingway was in regard to his sexual orientation. This is controversial because Hemingway is known to have a deep hatred to the gay people; however, scholars denote that this was with the intention of hiding his sexual orientation. This is because Hemingway is suspected to have been a gay person. It is these types of controversies and issues surrounding the life of Hemingway that could have an impact in negatively affecting his career. This paper examines the controversial manner which Hemingway was able to depict women, and why this could negatively affect his career. Ernest Hemingway is a famous and talented American writer. However, most of his critics do not feel the same. This is because of his writing style, and the various controversies that Mr. Hemingway was able to have. On most occasions, Mr. Hemingway is always compared to famous authors such as William Faulkner and Scott Fitzergerald. However, he has a very different writing style, when it is compared to these famous authors. Furthermore, Mr. Hemingway has made enormous and great contribution to the modern fiction, when he is compared to the above mentioned authors (Boon, 27). However, this assertion is debatable, mainly because he has only a handful of novels and fictions to his name. This is when compared to the above authors, who dedicated most of their lives in writing fiction and novels. Furthermore, he was very particular in regard to his writing (Bloom, 31). He did not just come up with a story, but he analyzed the story carefully, and every sentence, and word, for purposes of e nsuring that the story under consideration would serve its function, and disseminate the intended message. Furthermore, the novels that Hemingway created were following a chronological order. The impact of this order is that the novels were boring, and very typical. For

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Product Samsung

The current issue and full text archive of this journal is available at www. emeraldinsight. com/0309-0566. htm EJM 44,7/8 Consumer responses to brand extensions: a comprehensive model ? ? Eva Mart? nez and Jose M. Pina ? Facultad de Ciencias Economicas y Empresariales, The University of Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain Abstract Purpose – This paper aims to understand the reciprocal spill-over effects of brand extensions by testing a comprehensive model that gathers both the brand extension evaluation process and the later in? uence on brand image. Design/methodology/approach – Data were obtained from 699 face-to-face interviews conducted in Spain.Structural equation modelling was used to test the proposed hypotheses. Findings – The results indicate that brand extensions have feedback effects on brand image depending on the attitude toward the new product and perceived image ? t. Consumer attitude depends, in turn, on initial brand associations, perceived category ? t, perceived image ? t and consumer innovativeness. Brand familiarity also shows indirect effects. Research limitations/implications – The model should be tested with extensions of the same (line extensions) or different categories.It is also necessary to analyse non-? ctitious products, and to take different moderating effects into account. Practical implications – The results suggest how to protect the brand image from unsuitable extension strategies. The paper shows what kind of perceived ? t is more important for consumers as well as the direct and indirect role of several variables. Originality/value – The paper extends previous research by proposing a complete framework that considers the factors that in? uence either the attitude to the extension or the attitude to the extended brand.Samsung Distribution ChannelKeywords Brand extensions, Brand image, Brand equity, Consumer behaviour, Spain Paper type Research paper 1182 Received January 2008 Revised October 2008 January 2009 Accepted February 2009 Introduction Brand extension is a strategy that many companies follow with the aim of bene? ting from the brand knowledge achieved in the current markets (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Milberg et al. , 1997). When a new product is marketed under a well-known brand name, failure rates and marketing costs are reduced (Milewicz and Herbig, 1994; Keller, 2003). Keller (2003) states that more than 80 per cent of ? ms resort to brand extensions as a way of marketing goods and services. The support that the brand gives to the new product often leads to a change in the brand image associations. Both the affection and the speci? c knowledge associated with the brand and the new product are interchanged in the consumers’ mind (Czellar, 2003). European Journal of Marketing Vol. 44 No. 7/8, 2010 pp. 1182-1205 q Emerald Group Publishing Limited 0309-0566 DOI 10. 1108/03090561011047580 The authors would like to thank the following sources for their ? nanc ial help: CICYT (Ref: ?SEJ2005-02315) and Government of Aragon (â€Å"GENERES†, Ref. S-09; â€Å"PM0262/2006†). They also gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments of the three anonymous EJM reviewers. This feedback process can increase the memory and strength of brand associations (Morrin, 1999; Aaker, 2002) and, thus, improve the positioning of the brand (Park et al. , 1986). Nevertheless, several authors indicate that the dilution of current beliefs is more likely (Tauber, 1988; Ries and Trout, 1993; John et al. , 1998). This dilution effect can take place even though the extension is not related to negative information (Morrin, 1999; ?Ahluwalia and Gurhan-Canli, 2000; Mart? nez and Pina, 2003). Virgin, for instance, is a company that has grown through extensions into the audiovisual sector, retailing, alcoholic drinks, passenger transport (by railway and air) and space tourism, among others. However, market research studies suggest that customers’ per ceptions of the Virgin brand mainly depend on the performance of the airline, which implies a constant threat of image dilution (Hughes, 2007). The in? uence of brand extension on brand image is explained by several theories, most of them coming from Psychology.According to the â€Å"associative network theory†, brand image may be understood as a mental scheme formed by a network of concepts (nodes) interconnected by linkages or associations (Anderson, 1983; Morrin, 1999). Park et al. (1993) explain that extensions which are coherent with the brand schema will not lead to image dilution (assimilation process). On the other hand, the brand schema will be modi? ed to accommodate examples that are far from current brand attitudes and beliefs (accommodation process). Following Weber and Crocker’s (1983) ? ork, Gurhan-Canli and Maheswaran (1998) suggest that the image modi? cation could be re? ected in the formation of a mental subcategory inside the brand scheme (sub-typin g model) or in a complete modi? cation of brand associations (conversion model). The sub-typing or conversion processes may occur when perceived ? t or typicality between the extension category and the brand is low. However, it is just possible that brand attitudes and beliefs would always change because of the new information, which is called the bookkeeping model (Weber and Crocker, 1983; Loken and John, ? 993; Gurhan-Canli and Maheswaran, 1998). Consumers could react according to the bookkeeping model when the information on the new product is highly accessible. Regardless of perceived ? t, higher accessibility gives rise to an image enhancement, whereas lower accessibility has a negative effect on brand evaluations (Ahluwalia and ? Gurhan-Canli, 2000). The brand extension literature shows that brand extensions can affect both the ? general brand associations (Mart? nez and de Chernatony, 2004) and the beliefs in speci? attributes (Keller and Aaker, 1992; Loken and John, 1993). T he beliefs related to the most representative product of the brand, or ? agship product, are more resistant to dilution ( John et al. , 1998; Chang, 2002), as well as the perceptions linked to the brand personality (Diamantopoulos et al. , 2005). Most previous research on brand extensions develops experimental designs, focusing on a reduced number of variables (e. g. Loken and John, 1993; John et al. , 1998; Alexander and Colgate, 2005). Some authors have tested models through structural ? equation modelling (e. g.Bhat and Reddy, 2001; Volckner and Sattler, 2006) although they concentrate on consumer attitude toward brand extensions and not on reciprocal spillover effects. According to literature, brand extensions may give rise to both a â€Å"forward† effect from the parent brand to the new product and a â€Å"feedback† or â€Å"backward† effect from the new product to the parent brand (Milberg et al. , 1997; Responses to brand extensions 1183 EJM 44,7/8 1184 B alachander and Ghose, 2003). Neglecting this potential backward effect affords a limited view of consumer behaviour and may lead to inappropriate marketing actions.With the goal of better understanding the way that extensions in? uence brand image, our work proposes and validates a theoretical model that, according to the previous literature, integrates the most relevant variables. With the exception of the ? contribution of Volckner and Sattler (2006), previous models only focus on a few variables, which makes it dif? cult to determine how the consumers’ responses to brand extensions are generated. Furthermore, the proposed model considers both the brand image before the extension and the image variation, which is a step forward in literature.As well as brand image, we will analyse the effects of brand familiarity, attitude to the extension, extension-brand ? t (category and image ? t), perceived dif? culty in manufacturing the extension product and consumer innovativeness. Hence, the study expands previous research by testing a comprehensive model that gathers both the brand extension evaluation process and the later in? uence on brand image. This model can help brand managers to protect their brands from unsuitable brand extensions by showing the main determinants of spillover effects and the direct and indirect effects of the speci? variables. Relationships that have been individually supported in previous works could be rejected when considering complex models with several dependent and independent variables. The study is structured in four sections. The next section contains a brief review of the literature to justify the theoretical model and the relations established in the hypotheses. The third section describes the methodology used to validate the model, and the results are reported in the fourth section. Finally, we address the conclusions and managerial recommendations.Proposed model and hypotheses The proposed model helps us to understand t he in? uence of brand extensions on brand image. For this reason, the model includes the variables with the greatest impact on extension attitude (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Hem et al. , 2003). This attitude will determine the development of the brand image (Lane and Jacobson, 1997), affecting the current associations. The model stems from the initial brand image and attempts to identify the main relations and interactions that follow the launching of the brand extension and its potential effects on the established associations.Generally, consumer attitudes toward brand extensions can depend on factors related to brand associations, extended category, perceived ? t, and consumer characteristics (Czellar, 2003; Reast, 2005; ? Volckner and Sattler, 2006). Hence, two brand knowledge factors, brand familiarity and initial brand image, are considered. In relation to the new product and its ? t with the parent brand, we consider perceived dif? culty in manufacturing, perceived category ? t a nd perceived brand image ? t. Extension attitude and consumer innovativeness are also taken into consideration. Whereas brand associations and ? have been examined in nearly every study on brand extensions, perceived dif? culty and consumer innovativeness have received lesser attention. Since Aaker and Keller’s (1990) fundamental study and all subsequent replications (Barrett et al. , 1999) analysed perceived dif? culty with inconclusive results, it seems necessary to study this variable more in depth. On the other hand, the whole literature on brand extensions relies on the assumption that a known brand reduces the risk associated with buying new products (Smith and Park, 1992), and consumer innovativeness re? ects the consumer’s risk aversion.The proposed effects of these variables and the remaining ones are depicted in Figure 1. The ? rst variable included in our model is brand familiarity. This variable is closely related to the dimension of brand equity labelled a s awareness by Aaker (1996), since familiar brand names usually present high awareness. Moreover, it is also akin to the brand image construct, which refers to the different â€Å"perceptions about a brand re? ected as associations existing in the memory of the consumer† (Keller, 1993). Direct effects on extension attitude are expected for brand familiarity as well as indirect ones through brand image.First, individuals will have a better initial image of the brands they are familiar with (Low and Lamb, 2000; Lemmink et al. , 2003). By means of a â€Å"halo effect†, the impressions of familiar attributes are used to form precise opinions on brands (Reynolds, 1965) and develop more complete knowledge structures (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987; Grime et al. , 2002). Furthermore, familiarity indirectly re? ects the experience with a brand (Alba and Hutchinson, 1987), presenting a clear relationship between experience and brand image (Hoek et al. , 2000).Familiarity can also ha ve a direct effect on brand extension evaluations. Consumers are more inclined to buy products of brands they have previously consumed (Swaminathan, 2003) and know better, unless the experience has been unsatisfactory (Swaminathan et al. , 2001). Although some works have failed to prove that familiarity affects consumer attitude to an extension (Glynn and Brodie, 1998) and to the extended brand (Diamantopoulus et al. , 2005), we hypothesise: H1. The greater the familiarity of the core brand, the more positive the initial brand image. H2.The greater the familiarity of the core brand, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. Brand image is an essential factor for understanding consumer attitude toward brand extensions, since the credibility of the new product increases when brand perceptions become more favourable (de Ruyter and Wetzels, 2000). If the brand image consists of Responses to brand extensions 1185 Figure 1. Proposed model to analyse the effect of brand extension strategy on brand image EJM 44,7/8 1186 associations such as a high-perceived quality, the extension attitude will be better (van ? Riel et al. 2001; Volckner and Sattler, 2006). In the same vein, the extension attitude is positively related to the perceptions of reputation (Hem et al. , 2003), prestige (Park et al. , 1991) and the consumers’ affection for the brand (Sheinin and Schmitt, 1994). In the case of corporate and service brands, a positive image also clearly generates favourable perceptions of the new products (Brown and Dacin, 1997; de Ruyter and Wetzels, 2000). Given that the extension leverages the current brand associations, the better the initial brand image the more positive will be the consumers’ response.Therefore: H3. The more positive the initial brand image, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. If consumers perceive a high ? t between the brand and the new product, the brand leveraging increases and the potential negative effects are less likely (Czellar, 2003). Some authors state that consumers can consider a category ? t or an image ? t (Bhat and Reddy, 2001; Grime et al. , 2002; Czellar, 2003). Thus, individuals can believe that the new product is physically similar to the other products of the brand (category ? t) or coherent with the general brand associations (image ? ) (Grime et al. , 2002; Czellar, 2003). Whatever the case, the consistency between cognitive elements and the similarity among various stimuli ease and improve consumers’ evaluations (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Eagly and Chaiken, 1993). Brand image-perceived ? t interaction effects are revealed in the literature (Boush et al. , 1987; Aaker and Keller, 1990) as well as ? direct effects (Volckner and Sattler, 2006). The next hypotheses deal with the direct effects of perceived ? t dimensions on extension evaluation. As commented above, perceived category and image ? will directly affect the consumer attitude to the extension. Generally, the assessment of an extension will be more positive as perceived closeness with the brand grows (Aaker and Keller, 1990; ? Volckner and Sattler, 2006), even in the case of non-prestige brands (Park et al. ,1991). However, consumers believe that extensions to non-related categories are not very reliable and offer low quality, which causes a negative assessment (Kirmani et al. , 1999). According to the literature, a high-perceived category or image ? t makes success more likely (Boush et al. 1987; Boush and Loken, 1991; Park et al. , 1991). The important thing is to get the consumers to relate the new product to the brand, independently of the kind of closeness. This discussion leads to the following hypotheses: H4. The greater the perceived category ? t between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. H5. The greater the perceived image ? t between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. Another va riable included in our model is perceived dif? ulty in manufacturing or offering a new good or service. This variable has been analysed in numerous works, although it is not clear whether it in? uences consumer behaviour or not (Barrett et al. , 1999; van Riel et al. , 2001). Moreover, present research does not clarify whether this in? uence is positive (Aaker and Keller, 1990; van Riel and Ouwersloot, 2005) or negative (Semeijn et al. , 2004). This diversity of results re? ects that the in? uence of dif? culty in manufacturing might depend on the study settings and the variables interacting with such dif? culty.Generally, consumers who think that the new product category requires little manufacturing effort may question its advisability (Aaker and Keller, 1990). They could even think that high-quality brands are trying to make fast money by overpricing trivial products (Aaker and Keller, 1990; van Riel et al. , 2001). In a sense, easy-to-make extensions could resemble downscale ext ensions, where the brand stretches down by offering lower price-quality products (Kirmani et al. , 1999). Consequently, we posit: H6. The greater the perceived dif? culty in manufacturing the new product, the more favourable the attitude to the extension.The last variable of our model to explain attitude to the extension is consumer innovativeness, a concept that represents the consumers’ propensity to buy new products and consider new ideas (Roehrich, 2004). Since innovative people are more risk-prone (Klink and Smith, 2001; Hem et al. , 2003), they show a better attitude toward brand extensions, whatever their perceived ? t (Klink and Smith, 2001). In this sense, some authors have found that higher consumer innovativeness increases perceived quality and purchase intention of new services (Hem et al. , 2003; Siu et al. , 2004) and ? tangible products (Volckner and Sattler, 2006).Rogers (1983) claims that one of the most salient traits of consumer innovators is the comfort th ey gain from taking risk. Unlike later adopters, highly-innovative individuals ? nd far extensions appealing (Xie, 2008) and, consequently, do not mind trying products that get away from the company’s core business. As a matter of fact, they should be more prone to try new products regardless of the degree of brand knowledge or perceived ? t. Consequently, we posit: H7. The greater consumer innovativeness, the more favourable the attitude to the extension. The following hypotheses relate to the feedback effect on brand image.Because of the new information, the brand schema could vary its structure of nodes and links (Morrin, 1999). There is no doubt that most brand associations will remain stable after stretching to new categories, being the ? nal perceptions mainly determined by the ? initial ones (Lee and Ulgado, 1993; Mart? nez and Pina, 2003). However, product introductions in the marketplace involve providing consumers with information, which not always ? ts with the ini tial beliefs and feelings about the brand. As elucidated by previous research, the attitude to the extension is a major driver of spillover effects from the extension to the parent brand.Low quality or negatively ? assessed extensions will entail a detriment of brand image (Chang, 2002; Mart? nez and ? Pina, 2003), diluting both general and speci? c beliefs (Mart? nez and de Chernatony, 2004). Diamantopoulos et al. (2005) found that brand personality is more dilution-resistant, although any brand association is exposed to the risk of dilution. A way of reducing this risk is to strengthen the attitude to the extension, given that consumers who are satis? ed with the extension are usually satis? ed with the brand (Alexander and Colgate, 2005). The following hypothesis is based on these arguments. H8.The better the attitude to the extension, the more favourable the feedback effect on the extended brand. Responses to brand extensions 1187 EJM 44,7/8 1188 The literature reveals that the attitude to an extended brand directly depends on the degree of ? t with the extension (Grime et al. , 2002). The introduction of extensions far from the core business will involve losing brand differentiation and credibility, whereas extensions to related markets will avoid potential damage (Aaker, 2002). Some authors like Milberg et al. (1997) have proved that low-? t extensions generate negative feedback in terms of attributes or image.Similarly, Lee and Ulgado (1993) ? veri? ed that ? t has a positive effect on the image of service ? rms, whereas Mart? nez and de Chernatony (2004) veri? ed the same for tangible product extensions. Other works equally suggest that the impact of brand extensions on the parent brand is ? directly related to similarity (Mart? nez and Pina, 2003) or image ? t (Loken and John, 1993; John et al. , 1998). All in all, we expect a more positive feedback effect provided the brand stretches coherently with either its image or current products. H9. The great er the perceived category ? between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the feedback effect on the extended brand. H10. The greater the perceived image ? t between the extension and the core brand, the more favourable the feedback effect on the extended brand. Methodology An empirical study was conducted to contrast the hypotheses and validate the model displayed in Figure 1. Following the usual procedures, we utilised real brands and realistic hypothetical extensions (Aaker and Keller, 1990; van Riel et al. , 2001; van Riel and Ouwersloot, 2005) that were previously selected through three pre-tests.Below, we explain these and other aspects related to the methodology applied. Pre-tests In line with previous research, a sample of undergraduates was employed in the pre-tests (Sheinin and Schmitt, 1994; Kim, 2003). The speci? c brands and extensions were selected by means of Wilcoxon tests, which were necessary due to the lack of normality in the data. The aim of the ? rst pre-test, conducted with 91 students, was to choose brands in three sectors (fast moving consumer goods, durable consumer goods and services) that were familiar (F) to individuals and had a different image perception (I).Familiarity is an essential requisite to guarantee that consumers have a clear image to evaluate (Low and Lamb, 2000). Two questions were thus formulated to assess those concepts in seven-point Likert scales (1 ? Totally unfamiliar/7 ? Very familiar; 1 ? Bad image/7 ? Excellent image) for a total of 11 brands. According to the results, Colgate ? and Signal (FC ? 6. 38; FS ? 5. 50), Nike and Puma (FN ? 6. 56; FP ? 5. 64), Telefonica Movistar and Amena (FT ? 6. 64; FA ? 6. 27) were chosen as familiar brands. The image is signi? cantly different in toothpaste brands (IC ? 5. 74; IS ? 4. 96; Z ? 2 4. 618; p , 0. 0001), sports brands (IN ? 6. 21; IP ? 5. 10; Z ? 2 5. 449; p , 0. 00001) and mobile phones (IT ? 5. 67; IA ? 4. 88; Z ? 2 4. 001; p , 0. 00001). The seco nd and third pre-tests, where 98 and 81 students, respectively, participated, were aimed at ? nding two extensions –one for each sector– with differences in perceived ? t. Both perceived category ? t (CF) and brand image ? t (IF) were considered (Bhat and Reddy, 2001) in two Likert scales (1 ? Not at all similar/7 ? Very similar; 1 ? Non-coherent/7 ? Very coherent). For the toothpaste brands, â€Å"sugar-free whitening tooth decay-preventing sweets† and â€Å"sunglasses† were selected.The ? rst showed a higher perceived ? t than the second for Colgate (CF1 ? 5. 36; CF2 ? 1. 31; Z ? 2 5. 341; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 5. 69; IF2 ? 1. 54; Z ? 2 5. 339; p , 0. 00001) and Signal (CF1 ? 4. 86; CF2 ? 1. 19; Z ? 2 5. 120; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 5. 19; IF2 ? 1. 25; Z ? 2 5. 019; p , 0. 00001). On the other hand, for the sports brands, we chose â€Å"skis† as a close extension and â€Å"DVD players† as a far extension, both from the perspective of product c ategory of Nike (CF1 ? 3. 33; CF2 ? 1. 28; Z ? 2 5. 120; p , 0. 00001) and Puma (CF1 ? 3. 32; CF2 ? 1. 14; Z ? 2 4. 910; p , 0. 00001).Similarly, there were statistical differences between the image ? t of the extensions for Nike (IF1 ? 4. 23; IF2 ? 1. 36; Z ? 2 5. 561; p , 0. 00001) and Puma (IF1 ? 3. 89; IF2 ? 1. 14; Z ? 2 5. 113; p , 0. 00001). Finally, â€Å"telecommunication on-line courses† and â€Å"insurance† were the service extensions selected. Speci? cally, the perceived category ? and image ? t were statistically different for Telefonica Movistar (CF1 ? 4. 67; CF2 ? 1. 84; Z ? 2 5. 475; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 4. 72; IF2 ? 1. 72; Z ? 2 5. 543; p , 0. 00001) and Amena (CF1 ? 3. 73; CF2 ? 1. 76; Z ? 2 4. 283; p , 0. 00001) (IF1 ? 4. 27; IF2 ? 1. 84; Z ? 2 4. 61; p , 0. 00001). Sample and procedure Subsequent to the pre-tests, we elaborated 12 questionnaires with a different brand-extension combination. On the ? rst page, individuals had to indicate their consume r innovativeness and answer some questions about the corresponding brand (familiarity and image) and product category (perceived dif? culty). Then, on the second page of the questionnaire, respondents were required to imagine that the speci? c brand launched the extension. Questions then assessed the ? t, the respondents’ attitudes towards the extension and the brand image, supposing the existence of the new product category.No additional information about the products’ attributes was provided in order to avoid bias that could defeat the objective of the study (Bhat and Reddy, 2001). The surveys were answered by a total sample of 720 individuals (699 valid cases) in a Spanish city, which is sometimes considered as a test market for products aimed at Spain. The respondents were approached by a team of interviewers in different parts of the city, on different days and at different times during May 2005. By following a quota sampling procedure, the sample was required to match the population structure by sex (50. 9 per cent women and 49. per cent men) and age (46. 5 per cent 26-45 years, 33. 3 per cent 16-25 years, 20. 2 per cent 46-64 years). These demographical variables may be strong predictors of changes in attitudes and behavior (Hansman and Schutjens, 1993) and, therefore, should be controlled to get adequate variance in the data. Table I shows the type of questionnaires used in our research and the speci? c number of individuals who satisfactorily responded to each. No individual answered more than one questionnaire. Measures Variables were measured through seven-point Likert scales by requesting individuals either to state their level of agreement with the speci? statement (1 ? Totally disagree, 7 ? Totally agree) or directly assess the variable (e. g. 1 ? Not at all familiar, 7 ? Very familiar). In all cases, items were extracted or based on the literature. In order to avoid potential order effects (Klink and Smith, 2001), perceived Respons es to brand extensions 1189 EJM 44,7/8 N8 Brand 49 Colgate Extension (high ? t) Sugar-free whitening tooth decaypreventing sweets Sugar-free whitening tooth decay†¦ Skis Skis Telecommunication online courses Telecommunication online courses N8 Brand 50 Colgate 48 49 49 80 Signal Nike Puma ? Telefonica Movistar 75 AmenaExtension (low ? t) Sunglasses Sunglasses DVD players DVD players Insurance Insurance 1190 Table I. Type and number of questionnaires Signal Nike Puma ? Telefonica Movistar 79 Amena 49 48 49 74 dif? culty was assessed prior to brand characteristics and ? t. For the same reason, ? nal image was measured once the individuals had formed an opinion about the brand extension. Table II shows the scales used for each factor. First, consumer innovativeness was measured with the items proposed by Roehrich (1994), who considers a dual perspective, â€Å"hedonistic† and â€Å"social†. Perceived dif? ulty was assessed through an item used by Aaker and Keller (19 90) and two additional items coherent with the concept. For brand familiarity, we used Dawar’s scale (Dawar, 1996), whereas the scale validated by Martinez et al. (2004) was employed to assess initial and ? nal brand image. This scale utilises items from several works (Martin and Brown, 1990; Weiss et al. , 1999) which attempt to assess tangible (functional image) and intangible (affective image) attributes and bene? ts, as well as the global attitude to the brand (reputation). The distinction made by several authors between category ? t or similarity and image ? or consistency with brand image (Park et al. , 1991; Bhat and Reddy, 2001; Grime et al. , 2002) was used to measure perceived ? t. Thus, a series of items that assess ? t from both perspectives (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Taylor and Bearden, 2002) were chosen. Finally, extension attitude items were suggested by authors like Aaker and Keller (1990) or Pryor and Brodie (1998) considering both the general assessment of the new product and purchase intentions. Results The collected data were analysed by means of structural equations methodology, assessing both the measurement and the structural model (Kline, 2005).The structural model allows us to know whether there is evidence to reject the proposed hypotheses, although previously the measurement model has to evaluate the psychometric properties of the scales in terms of unidimensionality, reliability and validity. Furthermore, some ? t indicators show whether the measurement and structural models explain the collected data with relative precision (Hair et al. , 1998). Scale validation Prior to analysing all the variables as a whole, we studied whether initial brand image, ? nal brand image, consumer innovativeness and perceived ? should be considered as multidimensional or unidimensional factors, since the distinction between the Scale Consumer innovativeness. Roehrich (1994) Measured concept Hedonist innovativeness (HINN) HINN1: I am more intereste d in buying new than known products HINN2: I like to buy new and different products HINN3: New products excite me Social innovativeness (SINN) SINN1: I am usually among the ? rst to try new products SINN2: I try new products before my friends and neighbours SINN3: I know more than others about the latest new products DIFF1: Dif? ulty in designing and making the product DIFF2: Complex techniques or knowledge are needed DIFF3: Specialised resources are needed (personnel, facilities. . . ) FAMI1: Familiarity with the brand’s products FAMI2: Purchase frequency of the brand’s products FAMI3: Knowledge of the brand’s products Functional image (FUIM) (initial/? nal) FUIM1i/FUIM1f: The products have a high quality FUIM2i/FUIM2f: The products have better characteristics than competitors’ FUIM3i/FUIM3f: The products of the competitors are usually cheaper Affective image (AFIM) (initial/? al) AFIM1i/AFIM1f: The brand is nice AFIM2i/AFIM2f: The brand has a personalit y that distinguishes it from competitors AFIM3i/AFIM3f: It is a brand that does not disappoint its customers Reputation (REIM) (initial/? nal) REIM1i/REIM1f: It is one of the best brands in the sector REIM2i/REIM2f: The brand is very consolidated in the market Category ? t (CAFI) CAFI1: The extension is similar to the brand’s products CAFI2: The ? rm’s resources are helpful to make the product extension Image ? t (IMFI) IMFI1: The product extension ? s with the brand image IMFI2: Launching the extension is logical for the company IMFI3: Launching the extension is appropriate for the company EXAT1: Favourable attitude towards the extension EXAT2: Perceived quality of the extension EXAT3: Likelihood of trying the extension Responses to brand extensions 1191 Perceived dif? culty (DIFF). Aaker and Keller (1990) Brand familiarity (FAMI). Dawar (1996) ? Brand image. Mart? nez et al. (2004). Based on: Martin and Brown (1990) Aaker (1996); Weiss et al. (1999); Villarejo (2002) Perceived ? t. Aaker and Keller (1990); Taylor and Bearden (2002) Extension attitude (EXAT).Aaker and Keller (1990); Pryor and Brodie (1998) Table II. Scales used in the questionnaires EJM 44,7/8 1192 proposed dimensions (e. g. hedonistic and social innovativeness) could be statistically non-advisable. Through a previous analysis with SPSS 13. 0, we detected a weak item-total correlation of FUIM3i (corr. ? 0. 281) and FUIM3f (corr. ? 0. 296) with the respective dimensions of functional image. After eliminating them, we conducted an explanatory factor analysis for the unidimensional and multidimensional models using the EQS 5. b and ERLS (elliptical re-weighted least squares) estimation method.The initial image, ? ?nal image and perceived ? t scales proved to be reliable in both models (Joreskog and ? Sorbom, 1993), although it was advisable to eliminate HINN1 related to consumer innovativeness. Although the factor loadings exceeded the cut point lU ? 0:540; lM ? 0:673? ; the R 2 co ef? cients ? R 2 ? 0:292; R 2 ? 0:453? were below those recommended in the literature (Hair et al. , 1998). Once the scales had been properly re? ned, we proceeded to compare the unidimensional and multidimensional models through several indicators (Hair et al. , 1998; Kline, 2005). Tables III and IV display the coef? ients obtained, which clearly favour the consideration of independent dimensions for all the factors analysed. The only indexes in which the unidimensional model surpasses the multidimensional one are PNFI and PGFI for the factors of initial brand image (PNFI ? 0. 511 , 0. 638; Comparative indicators Initial image Unidimen. Multidimen. 126. 181 0. 047 0. 221 112. 181 0. 160 0. 638a 0. 466a 154. 181 72. 177a 0. 034a 0. 152a 61. 177a 0. 088a 0. 511 0. 377 106. 177a Final image Unidimen. Multidimen. 211. 559 0. 053 0. 343 197. 559 0. 283 0. 628a 0. 449a 239. 559 51. 082a 0. 027a 0. 122a 40. 082a 0. 057a 0. 516 0. 382 85. 082a x2RMSR (Root mean square residual) ECVI (Expec ted cross-validation index) NCP (Noncentrality parameter) SNCP (Scaled noncentrality parameter) PNFI (Parsimonious normed ? t index) PGFI (Parsimonious goodness of ? t index) AIC (Akaike information criterion) Table III. Indicators of the alternative models of brand image (initial and ? nal) Note: aCoef? cients that are favourable to the speci? ed model Comparative indicators Consumer innov. Unidimen. Multidimen. 195. 411 0. 079 0. 309 190. 411 0. 272 0. 453a 0. 292a 215. 411 31. 088a 0. 022a 0. 076a 27. 088a 0. 039a 0. 394 0. 261 53. 088a Perceived ? t Unidimen. Multidimen. 77. 634 0. 34 0. 140 72. 634 0. 104 0. 483a 0. 314a 97. 634 50. 164a 0. 025a 0. 103a 46. 164a 0. 066a 0. 391 0. 256 72. 164a x2 RMSR (Root mean square residual) ECVI (Expected cross-validation index) NCP (Noncentrality parameter) SNCP (Scaled noncentrality parameter) PNFI (Parsimonious normed ? t index) PGFI (Parsimonious goodness of ? t index) AIC (Akaike information criterion) Table IV. Indicators of the alter native models of consumer innovativeness and ? t Note: aCoef? cients that are favourable to the speci? ed model PGFI ? 0. 377 , 0. 466), ? nal image (PNFI ? 0. 516 , 0. 628; PGFI ? 0. 382 , 0. 449), consumer innovativeness (PNFI ? . 394 , 0. 453; PGFI ? 0. 261 , 0. 292) and perceived ? t (PNFI ? 0. 391 , 0. 483; PGFI ? 0. 256 , 0. 314). Nevertheless, the parsimony indicator, AIC, which allows us to choose between models with a different number of latent variables, as in our case, presents better values in the multidimensional structure: initial image (AIC ? 106. 177 , 154. 181), ? nal image (AIC ? 85. 082 , 239. 559), consumer innovativeness (AIC ? 53. 088 , 215. 411) and perceived ? t (AIC ? 72. 164 , 97. 634). After verifying the multidimensional character of initial brand image, ? nal brand image, consumer innovativeness and perceived ? , our next step was to conduct a factor analysis of all the scales. Again, we used EQS and ERLS, obtaining the results shown in Table V. We can i nfer from these results that the scales present good statistical properties. As can be seen in Table V, all the proposed items unidimensionally ? t the respective 13 factors or latent variables. The values obtained in composite reliability coef? cients and extracted variance analysis (EVA) are above 0. 6 and 0. 5, respectively, which guarantees the internal consistency of the scales. Moreover, the validity criterion was satis? ed from both convergent and discriminant viewpoints.Thus, all lambda coef? cients for the observed variables are signi? cant (t . 1. 96) and they load on the corresponding factors with standard loadings above 0. 5. The con? dence intervals of between-factor correlations were calculated to analyse discriminant validity. No intervals included value 1, which indicates the differentiated character of the factors. The main goodness-of-? t indicators for the measurement model are shown at the bottom of Table V, distinguishing between global and incremental ? t index es. On the whole, the indicators are positive and above the minimum established by researchers (Hair et al. 1998; Kline, 2005). With regard to global ? t, GFI is above 0. 8 (GFI ? 0. 884), whereas RMSEA and SRMR error statistics were below the maximum values of 0. 06 (RMSEA ? 0. 053) and 0. 08 (SRMR ? 0. 040) recommended by Hu and Bentler (1999). The only unsuitable indicator is the Chi-square test (x 2(417) ? 1224. 142; p , 0. 001), which often occurs in samples of over 400 observations. On the other hand, all the incremental ? t measures were above the required 0. 8 (AGFI ? 0. 844) and 0. 9 (CFI ? 0. 973; IFI ? 0. 973; NFI ? 0. 960; NNFI ? 0. 966) levels, which proves the statistical convenience of the proposed model.The validation process concluded with the estimation of three second-order models for the dimensions of brand image (initial and ? nal) and consumer innovativeness. These models presented favourable ? t indicators for initial image (GFI ? 0. 958; SRMR ? 0. 035; NFI ? 0. 975; IFI ? 0. 979), ? nal image (GFI ? 0. 972; SRMR ? 0. 028; NFI ? 0. 985; IFI ? 0. 989) and consumer innovativeness (GFI ? 0. 978; SRMR ? 0. 022; NFI ? 0. 985; IFI ? 0. 987). Model and hypotheses contrasting After analysing the psychometric properties of the scales, we proceeded to the estimation of the structural model, which corresponds to the structure shown in Figure 1.Previously, the global effect of extensions on brand image was analysed, comparing the values of initial and ? nal image in each scenario. Responses to brand extensions 1193 EJM 44,7/8 Factor HINN SINN Items HINN2 HINN3 SINN1 SINN2 SINN3 FUIM1i FUIM2i FUim1f FUIM2f AFIM1i AFIM2i AFIM3i AFIM1f AFIM2f AFIM3f REIM1i REIM2i REIM1f REIM2f FAMI1 FAMI2 FAMI3 DIFF1 DIFF2 DIFF3 EXAT1 EXAT2 EXAT3 CAFI1 CAFI2 IMFI1 IMFI2 IMFI3 Reliability t (. 1. 96) l(. 0. 5) 22. 230 20. 993 26. 547 25. 862 19. 829 22. 534 20. 543 24. 779 24. 208 21. 076 19. 473 17. 864 21. 545 21. 680 17. 880 23. 342 18. 125 25. 834 19. 868 22. 112 19 . 930 20. 822 18. 05 24. 402 18. 291 22. 956 18. 606 21. 579 22. 312 18. 837 26. 733 26. 683 24. 607 0. 861 0. 820 0. 915 0. 899 0. 744 0. 835 0. 776 0. 873 0. 859 0. 787 0. 741 0. 693 0. 798 0. 802 0. 694 0. 871 0. 706 0. 919 0. 751 0. 838 0. 771 0. 799 0. 729 0. 926 0. 725 0. 831 0. 712 0. 795 0. 839 0. 730 0. 906 0. 905 0. 859 Convergent validity * CRC (. 0. 6) EVA (. 0. 5) 0. 828 0. 891 0. 787 0. 857 0. 785 0. 810 0. 770 0. 825 0. 845 0. 839 0. 824 0. 763 0. 920 0. 707 0. 733 0. 650 0. 750 0. 550 0. 587 0. 629 0. 704 0. 645 0. 638 0. 610 0. 618 0. 793 1194 FUIM (i) FUIM (f) AFIM (i) AFIM (f) REIM (i) REIM (f) FAMI DIFF EXAT CAFI IMFITable V. Reliability, convergent validity and ? t of the measurement model Notes: Fit indices: Global ? t: x 2 ? 1224. 142 (417) p , 0. 001; GFI ? 0. 884; RMSEA ? 0. 053; SRMR ? 0. 040. Incremental ? t: AGFI ? 0. 844; CFI ? 0. 973; IFI ? 0. 973; NFI ? 0. 960; NNFI ? 0. 966; CRC: Composite reliability coef? cient; EVA: Extracted variance analysis, GFI : Goodness of ? t index; RMSEA: Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR: Standardised root mean square residual; AGFI: Adjusted goodness of ? t index; CFI: Comparative ? t index; IFI: Incremental ? t index; NFI: Normed ? t index; NNFI: Non-normed ? t indexGiven that the Cronbach alphas exceeded 0. 7, a single measure of initial and ? nal image, obtained as the mean of all the underlying items, was considered. Figures 2-4 gather the results according to the sector. For a better understanding of the effect on image, a single initial image (IMAG * (i)), calculated as the mean of initial brand images for close and far extensions, was taken into consideration. A new ? nal brand image (IMAG * (f)), resulting from adding IMAG * (i) to the difference obtained between the ? nal and the initial image in each scenario, was also considered. In general, these Responses to brand extensions 195 Figure 2. Brand image variation (toothpaste brands) Figure 3. Brand image variation (sport brands) Figure 4. Brand image variation (mobile phones brands) graphics suggest that ? rms should avoid entering markets far from their sector, since such extensions clearly entail brand image dilution. Once the global effect of extensions was analysed, the model hypotheses were tested. To test hypotheses related to feedback effects we created new variables based on unstandardised residuals. These residuals represent the brand image variation in such a way that higher values indicate more favourable feedback effects.They were obtained by regressing the post-test scores against the corresponding post-test scores, and the psychometrical properties of the resulting construct were similar to those of brand image factors (Cronbach’s alpha ? 0. 795). EJM 44,7/8 1196 Table VI contains the results of the model estimation and goodness of ? t measurements, which are acceptable and above the thresholds established in literature. Again, reasonable values were obtained for the error statistics ( RMSEA ? 0. 044; SRMR ? 0. 077) and the global ? t GFI (0. 892). The incremental ? t indexes also met the statistical requirements (AGFI ? 0. 74; CFI ? 0. 972; IFI ? 0. 972; NFI ? 0. 952; NNFI ? 0. 969). Next, the speci? c results concerning the hypotheses are commented. First, familiarity has a direct and signi? cant in? uence on initial brand image (best ? 0. 485; t-value ? 10. 419), as proposed in H1. However, contrary to H2, familiarity seems to have no signi? cant effect on extension attitude (best ? 2 0. 052; t-value ? 2 1. 443). Consequently, the most familiar brands will lead to more favourable brand associations, although not necessarily to a better assessment of the extension. The effect of initial brand image on extension attitude is signi? ant and positive (best ? 0. 232; t-value ? 6. 351), as proposed in H3. Therefore, consumers will prefer the brand extensions of companies that have managed to build and communicate positive brand associations. Since brand image depends on brand familiarity, consumer attitude toward brand extensions seems to be the result of a cognitive-affective sequence (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). Supporting H4, category ? t seems to be a clear determinant of extension attitude (best ? 0. 299; t-value ? 2. 439). In the same way, extension attitude is signi? cantly dependant on image ? t (best ? 0. 587; t-value ? 4. 76), which con? rms H5. Consequently, consumers will prefer those extensions marketed in a category that ? ts the brand portfolio, especially in terms of general brand associations. The effect of perceived dif? culty on extension attitude is positive (best ? 0. 035), as expected. Nevertheless, the coef? cient relating both factors fails to reach statistical signi? cance (t-value ? 1. 186), which implies rejecting H6. This lack of statistical signi? cance reveals that consumers do not consider dif? culty of manufacturing as a heuristic of the perceived quality of the new product. Hypotheses H1: FAMI !IMAG (i) H2: FAMI ! EXAT H3: IMAG (i) ! EXAT H4: CAFI ! EXAT H5: IMFI ! EXAT H6: DIFF ! EXAT H7: INNV ! EXAT H8: EXAT ! IMAG variation H9: CAFI ! IMAG variation H10: IMFI ! IMAG variation Standardised b (t) 0. 485 * 2 0. 052 0. 232 * 0. 299 * 0. 587 * 0. 035 0. 093 * 0. 631 * 2 0. 050 0. 159 (10. 419) (2 1. 443) (6. 351) (2. 439) (4. 876) (1. 186) (2. 924) (5. 846) (2 0. 313) (1. 004) Hypotheses validation Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Yes Yes No No Table VI. Results of the structural model Notes: *Signi? cant at p # 0. 05; Fit indices: Global ? t: x 2 ? 1131. 700 (481); p , 0. 001; GFI ? 0. 892; RMSEA ? . 044; SRMR ? 0. 077. Incremental ? t: AGFI ? 0. 874; CFI ? 0. 972; IFI ? 0. 972; NFI ? 0. 952; NNFI ? 0. 969; CRC: Composite reliability coef? cient; EVA: Extracted variance analysis, GFI: Goodness of ? t index; RMSEA: Root mean square error of approximation; SRMR: Standardised root mean square residual; AGFI: Adjusted goodness of ? t index; CFI: Comparative ? t index; IFI: Incremental ? t index; NFI: Normed ? t index; NNFI: Non-normed ? t index Regarding H7, consumer innovativeness appears to have a clear, though reduced, effect on extension attitude (best ? 0. 093; t-value ? 2. 924).All in all, attitude towards extensions will be fundamentally explained by the initial brand image (H3), perceived ? t (H4 and H5) and, to a lesser extent, by other factors such as consumer innovativeness (H7). H8 to H10 indicate the factors that explain the potential feedback effects of brand extensions on brand image. With respect to H8, extension attitude has a positive and signi? cant effect on brand image variation (best ? 0. 631; t ? 5. 846). Hence, the more favourable the attitude to the extension is, the more favourable the attitude toward the extended brand will be. Because of the high coef? ient obtained, companies launching brand extensions will have to avoid damaging their brands with low quality products. Contrary to our expectations, perceived category ? t has no direct effect on brand image variation, which rejects H9 (best ? 2 0. 050; t ? 2 0. 313). Despite showing a relatively high and positive coef? cient, the effect of image ? t proposed in H10 is not signi? cant either (best ? 0. 159; t ? 1. 004). The lack of signi? cance in both coef? cients suggests that the in? uence of ? t on brand image variation is only indirect through extension attitude (H4 and H5).To sum up, then, while perceived image and category ? t are essential factors for the success of a brand extension, it is signi? cant that extension attitude synthesises their effects. The centralising role of extension attitude was also corroborated by checking through the estimation of competitive models that neither brand familiarity nor consumer innovativeness nor perceived dif? culty have direct effects on brand image variation. Given the importance that literature attaches to perceived ? t to explain feedback effect (e. g. Loken and John, 1993; John et al. , 1998) and the lack of signi? ant effects in our model, we took a new step in the analysis. According to Czellar (2003), perceived ? t may moderate the in? uence of the attitude to the extension on the attitude to the extended brand. In the same way that high-perceived ? t increases the transference of brand associations to the new product (Aaker and Keller, 1990; Czellar, 2003), we think that the opposite effect could take place. This possibility was explored by means of two multi-sample analyses for each of the ? t dimensions, category ? t and image ? t. Speci? cally, the sample was split into high ? t (mean . 4) and low ? (mean , 4) and the structural model were replicated without considering direct effects of ? t. The Lagrange Multiplier (LM) Test and the maximum likelihood estimation method determined whether the model coef? cients are signi? cantly different (Iglesias and ? Vazquez, 2001). The comparison between the considered sub-samples yields interesting results. Although the effect of extension attitude on image variati on was similar for category ? t (x2dif ? 0. 182; p . 0. 1), the results lend support to the existence of moderating effects for image ? t at 90 per cent (x2dif ? 2. 868; p ? 0. 090). In the expected direction, the in? ence of extension attitude was higher in the high ? t condition (best ? 0. 810; t ? 12. 740) than in the low ? t one (best ? 0. 666; t ? 11. 203). In consequence, spillover effects between the brand and the extension (forward and backward) will depend on image ? t perceptions rather than on category ? t. Responses to brand extensions 1197 EJM 44,7/8 1198 Discussion A brand is one of the most important assets for ? rms and, therefore, marketing managers must be on the alert for inadequate strategies that erode brand assets. One of this potentially risky strategies involves the launching of unsuitable brand extensions ? hat erode extended brand bene? ts and associations (Mart? nez and de Chernatony, 2004; Diamantopoulos et al. , 2005). However, so far there is no clear u nderstanding of the main variables leading to spillover effects between brand extensions and parent brands and their relative in? uence. The present work proposes a model to ? nd out how extension strategies affect brand image, one of the major dimensions of brand equity. Unlike most previous research, this paper focuses on extension evaluation and feedback effects on the core brand as interrelated rather than independent phenomena.Moreover, it incorporates a few key variables into an operative model instead of considering most of the potential variables that might divert the attention of researchers and practitioners alike. The estimation of this model showed positive goodness-of-? t indexes and, without considering non-validated relationships, it sheds some light on the main factors and processes explaining consumer attitude. According to the literature, core parent brand experience positively in? uences probability of extension trial (Swaminathan et al. , 2001; Swaminathan, 2003) .However, our results reveal an indirect effect of brand experience or brand familiarity on consumer attitude to brand extensions. This variable has a distinctive in? uence on brand image, which, in turn, affects the assessment of the new category. These results are coherent with the behaviour models de? ned by some authors who maintain that the individual’s beliefs determine attitude and this, in turn, determines purchase behaviour (Fishbein and Ajzen, 1975). From this perspective, brand image, rather than brand familiarity, would explain consumer attitude to the extension. Our ? dings validate previous results in the literature concerning the positive effects of perceived ? t, either category or image ? t, on consumer attitude. In the same way, it was con? rmed that consumer innovativeness increases likelihood of consumer ? acceptance, although to a lesser extent than perceived ? t (Volckner and Sattler, 2006). Nevertheless, we could not verify the proposed relationship bet ween the attitude to the extension and dif? culty in manufacturing the new category. Due to the clear inconsistency of results along studies, the relevance of this variable proposed by Aaker and Keller (1990) should be questioned.In relation to feedback effects, our results suggest that perceived ? t (category and image) has no direct effect on the extended brand image, though an indirect effect occurs through attitude to the extension. Previous works focusing on the in? uence of perceived ? t on parent brand associations have mostly resorted to experimental settings (e. g. Loken and John, 1993; Milberg et al. , 1997; John et al. , 1998) rather than SEM models. Therefore, this relationship cannot be taken for granted in complex models where several constructs are interrelated. The estimation of the model also revealed that image ? moderates the effect of extension attitude on image variation. In the light of the results, consumers that perceive the extension as coherent with the bra nd image will modify their brand associations mainly on the basis of their resulting attitude. A high ? t perception usually entails a categorisation process where the extension is associated to the brand category and leverages the current beliefs and attitudes (Monga and Houston, 2002). According to our results, this process occurs in the opposite direction in such a way that a high ? t will involve the leveraging of the attitude to the extension.The results obtained are thus in line with those works that indicate that consumer attitude toward brand extensions mainly depends on perceived ? t (Aaker and ? Keller, 1990; van Riel et al. , 2001; Volckner and Sattler, 2006). Moreover, it contributes to the body of knowledge by showing that the effect of perceived category and image ? t on the extended brand image is not direct. On the contrary, it occurs an indirect effect through extension attitude and, in the case of image ? t, a further moderating effect on the relationship between e xtension attitude and image variation. To sum up, the coef? ients obtained indicate that extension attitude is especially determined by perceived category ? t, image ? t and initial brand image, which, in turn depends on familiarity. Consumer innovativeness is also a factor that explains consumer response to brand extensions. Furthermore, the results reveal that the existence of positive feedback effects will be an immediate consequence of the attitude to the extension. These results clearly support the basic argument of our model: the consumer will assess the product according to a series of variables and, as a result, the consumers will modify the initial brand schema.Implications Considering all the results obtained as a whole, we can make some recommendations for ? rms launching brand extensions. There is no doubt that the most important aspect for the success of an extension is coherence with the image of the extended brand. Though positive, it is not essential that the new pro duct or service belongs to a new category, but the ? rm has to be able to communicate the brand essence to the different markets (Kim, 2003). Once the new product is ? rmly associated to the current brand image, consumers will perceive a high quality of the new product and the risk associated to purchasing it will be lowered.Although innovative consumers are expected to prefer low-? t products (Xie, 2008), consumer innovativeness is a factor with a weak effect on the attitude to the extension. In comparison to introducing a new brand name, brand extensions will increase consumer trust and reduce the weight of consumer innovativeness as a risk reliever. Since consumer behaviour will be relatively similar regardless of consumer predisposition to new products, this factor should not be used for potential market segmentation. In consequence, companies must identify other consumer characteristics able to alter perceptions of quality and purchase ntentions of speci? c product categories. A favourable initial image will also be positive for consumer acceptance increasing the appeal of the new product. This image is hard to obtain in the short term, although our model suggests that increasing familiarity through communication or brand trials is an effective way of building brand associations. Since brand familiarity does not directly in? uence extension attitude, companies do not have to worry when their brands are not familiar enough or the current market share is scarce.Whenever they are capable of transmitting a positive brand image and ? t is high, success should be easy to obtain. Moreover, launching products perceived as trivial or very easy to make will not prevent consumers from trying the new product, a concern highlighted by Aaker and Keller (1990). Responses to brand extensions 1199 EJM 44,7/8 1200 Once consumers have developed a favourable attitude toward the new product, the brand associations might not be diluted but even strengthened. Provided perceived ? between the extension and the core brand is high, especially on the basis of image ? t, the attitude to the extension will be the main driver of feedback effects. Consequently, increasing the success of brand extensions and protecting the leveraged image are not con? icting but complementary goals. Companies should thus address their efforts towards the success of the extension by building a bundle of coherent and strong brand associations. This is the best way to avoid the risk of image dilution. Future research Our ? ndings raise several issues for future research. The ? st issue refers to the lack of time between the extension stimulus and the subsequent measurement of brand image, which is the common procedure in most studies. The fact of the matter is that higher experience reduces the likelihood of negative feedback effects (Sheinin, 2000; Swaminathan, 2003), since the mere exposure to the new product affords consumers to establish links with the brand that, otherwise, woul d not exist (Klink and Smith, 2001). However, experiments requiring the cooperation of respondents over time are likely to suffer from a â€Å"history problem† caused by the in? ence of external events (Campbell ? and Stanley, 1963). By analysing FMCG through a longitudinal study, Volckner and Sattler (2008) show that feedback effects diminish over time, although they also admit the possibility of confounding effects. Taking into account the advantages and disadvantages of the different procedures, the present study opted to exclude extraneous variables by minimising the time between pre and post-test scores. Since we aimed to test the interrelationships between factors, the setting of the study was designed to reinforce internal validity as much as possible.Consequently, it must be observed that the paper generates a picture of feedback effects in the short-term and these effects should be checked through a long period of time. It would be also advisable to verify whether th e validated relationships are consistent when consumers are exposed to all the market signals (competitors action, distribution support, etc. ) by using real extensions. Another issue to consider is whether the model can be applied to extensions of the same category or line extensions. Since line extensions are products with a higher perceived degree of ? t (Grime et al. 2002), there is a possibility that the relationships are sustained. It might be even more interesting to study whether service companies can successfully extend to the goods markets and vice versa. Indeed, it would be worthwhile to examine the brand and extension conditions that lead to higher effects of perceived ? t dimensions on the extension attitude toward the brand. Given that the in? uence of consumer innovativeness on extension attitude was less than expected, further research could also explore whether consumer innovativeness has moderating effects rather than mediating ones.Klink and Smith (2001) proved th at the in? uence of perceived ? t on extension attitude is lower among innovative consumers, who are more receptive to new products. 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